Turkey History Timeline

Turkey, a country that straddles both Europe and Asia, has been at the crossroads of civilizations for thousands of years. Its history is deeply intertwined with ancient empires, including the Greeks, Romans, Byzantines, and Ottomans. As the center of the Ottoman Empire, Turkey was once a global power that influenced much of Southeast Europe, Western Asia, and North Africa. The collapse of the Ottoman Empire after World War I paved the way for the formation of the modern Turkish Republic in 1923, under the leadership of Mustafa Kemal Atatürk. This timeline provides an in-depth look at the major events that have shaped Turkey’s long and complex history, from its ancient roots to the present day.

Ancient Anatolia and Early Empires (Before 1000 BCE – 330 CE)

Prehistoric and Early Settlements (Before 2000 BCE)

• 8000 BCE: The earliest known human settlement in Turkey, Çatalhöyük, was established. Located in central Anatolia, it is one of the most important Neolithic sites in the world, showing early advancements in agriculture, architecture, and religion.
• 2000 BCE: The Hittites, one of the earliest powerful civilizations in Anatolia, rose to prominence. Their capital, Hattusa, was located in central Anatolia. The Hittites are known for their legal systems and advanced metallurgy.

The Rise of Phrygia and Lydia (1200 BCE – 546 BCE)

• 12th Century BCE: After the decline of the Hittites, the Phrygian Kingdom emerged in central Anatolia. According to legend, King Midas ruled Phrygia during its peak, famous for his “golden touch.”
• 7th Century BCE: The Lydians in western Anatolia, under King Croesus, became wealthy through the trade of gold and other resources. They are credited with inventing the world’s first coins made of gold and silver.

Greek and Persian Rule (546 BCE – 330 BCE)

• 546 BCE: The Lydian Kingdom fell to the Persian Empire under Cyrus the Great. Anatolia became part of the Persian Empire and remained under Persian control for nearly two centuries.
• 334 BCE: Alexander the Great defeated the Persians and began his conquest of Anatolia. After Alexander’s death, Anatolia was divided among his generals, with portions coming under the control of the Seleucid Empire and other Hellenistic states.

The Roman and Byzantine Empires (330 CE – 1071 CE)

• 330 CE: Roman Emperor Constantine the Great founded the city of Constantinople (modern-day Istanbul) as the new capital of the Roman Empire. This marked the beginning of the Byzantine Empire, which would last for over 1,000 years, with Constantinople as its center.
• 6th Century CE: Under Emperor Justinian I, the Byzantine Empire reached its peak, and the famous Hagia Sophia was built in Constantinople. Justinian’s reign was marked by military conquests and significant legal reforms, including the Corpus Juris Civilis (Body of Civil Law).

The Seljuk Turks and the Ottoman Empire (1071 – 1923)

The Arrival of the Seljuk Turks (11th Century)

• 1071: The Battle of Manzikert marked a turning point in Anatolian history. The Seljuk Turks, led by Alp Arslan, defeated the Byzantine forces, opening the door for Turkish settlement in Anatolia. This battle is often seen as the beginning of Turkish influence in the region.
• 1077: The Sultanate of Rum, a Seljuk Turkish state, was established in central Anatolia, with its capital in Konya. This marked the beginning of a period of Turkish political dominance in the region.

The Rise of the Ottoman Empire (1299 – 1453)

• 1299: The Ottoman Empire was founded by Osman I, a Turkish tribal leader who began expanding his small principality in northwestern Anatolia. Over the next century, the Ottomans would grow into a formidable power.
• 1389: The Battle of Kosovo established Ottoman control over much of the Balkans, as Ottoman forces defeated a coalition of Serbs and other Christian forces.
• 1453: Constantinople fell to Sultan Mehmed II, marking the end of the Byzantine Empire and solidifying the Ottomans as a major world power. Constantinople was renamed Istanbul, and it became the capital of the Ottoman Empire.

The Ottoman Golden Age (1453 – 1600)

• 1520 – 1566: The reign of Suleiman the Magnificent marked the height of Ottoman power. The empire expanded into Eastern Europe, the Middle East, and North Africa. Suleiman was also known for his legal reforms, which became the foundation of Ottoman law.
• 1571: The Battle of Lepanto, a naval battle between the Ottomans and a Christian coalition, ended in a significant defeat for the Ottoman fleet. Although the battle did not end Ottoman dominance in the Mediterranean, it marked the beginning of the decline of Ottoman naval power.

The Decline of the Ottoman Empire (1600 – 1900)

• 1683: The Battle of Vienna was a turning point in Ottoman expansion into Europe. After their defeat, the Ottomans began to lose territories, particularly in the Balkans.
• 19th Century: Known as the “Sick Man of Europe,” the Ottoman Empire faced numerous challenges, including internal revolts, nationalist movements, and increasing European intervention. The empire lost key territories, including Greece, Serbia, and Egypt.
• 1839 – 1876: The Tanzimat Reforms were introduced in an attempt to modernize the Ottoman Empire and prevent further decline. These reforms sought to centralize administration, promote equality among citizens, and modernize the military and education systems.

The Fall of the Ottoman Empire and World War I (1900 – 1923)

• 1908: The Young Turk Revolution resulted in the restoration of the Ottoman constitution and a shift toward constitutional monarchy. The Committee of Union and Progress (CUP), led by Enver Pasha, Talaat Pasha, and Djemal Pasha, gained significant political influence.
• 1914 – 1918: The Ottoman Empire entered World War I on the side of the Central Powers (Germany and Austria-Hungary). The war devastated the empire, and the Ottomans lost large parts of their territory. The Gallipoli Campaign of 1915 was a key moment in Turkish history, as Ottoman forces successfully repelled an Allied invasion.
• 1919 – 1922: The Turkish War of Independence began after the signing of the Treaty of Sèvres in 1920, which partitioned the Ottoman Empire. Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, a former Ottoman military officer, led the nationalist movement, which fought to reverse the terms of the treaty and establish Turkish sovereignty.

The Turkish Republic (1923 – Present)

The Founding of the Republic (1923 – 1938)

• 1923: The Treaty of Lausanne officially recognized the independence of Turkey, and the Republic of Turkey was proclaimed on October 29, 1923. Mustafa Kemal Atatürk became the first president of Turkey and is regarded as the founder of the modern Turkish state.
• 1923 – 1938: Atatürk implemented a series of far-reaching reforms to modernize Turkey and secularize its political and legal institutions. These reforms included the abolition of the Ottoman Sultanate and the Caliphate, the adoption of the Latin alphabet, and the promotion of women’s rights and education.
• 1934: Atatürk introduced the Surnames Law, requiring all citizens to adopt a surname. He himself took the surname “Atatürk,” meaning “Father of the Turks.”

Post-World War II and the Cold War Era (1938 – 1980)

Turkey in World War II and the Early Cold War (1938 – 1960)

• 1938: Mustafa Kemal Atatürk died, and İsmet İnönü became president. İnönü maintained Turkey’s policy of neutrality during most of World War II but declared war on Germany and Japan in 1945, aligning with the Allies in the closing months of the conflict.
• 1952: Turkey joined NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization), solidifying its position as a key ally of the Western bloc during the Cold War. This alliance helped modernize Turkey’s military and strengthen ties with the United States and Western Europe.

Military Coups and Political Instability (1960 – 1980)

• 1960: The first of several military coups occurred when the Turkish military overthrew the government, citing political instability and economic issues. The coup resulted in the execution of Prime Minister Adnan Menderes and the drafting of a new constitution in 1961.
• 1971: Another military intervention took place, often referred to as the “Coup by Memorandum,” in which the military pressured the government to resign without directly taking power. This period was marked by political polarization, with rising tensions between leftist and right-wing factions.
• 1980: A third military coup took place, led by General Kenan Evren, in response to growing political violence and economic instability. The military ruled for several years, implementing a new constitution in 1982, which gave the military a significant role in Turkish politics.

Economic Reforms and Political Transformation (1980 – 2000s)

The Özal Era and Economic Liberalization (1980 – 1993)

• 1983: After the military relinquished direct control, Turgut Özal became prime minister and later president. Özal implemented major economic reforms that liberalized the Turkish economy, encouraging privatization, foreign investment, and export-oriented growth.
• Özal’s policies helped modernize Turkey’s infrastructure and integrate it into the global economy, but they also led to rising income inequality and social tensions.

Kurdish Conflict and Political Challenges (1990s)

• 1990s: Turkey faced growing internal challenges, particularly from the Kurdistan Workers’ Party (PKK), a militant group that sought autonomy for the Kurdish regions of southeastern Turkey. The Turkish government responded with a military crackdown, leading to a prolonged and violent conflict that resulted in thousands of deaths.
• The 1990s were also marked by political instability, with frequent changes in government and a rise in Islamist political movements.

The Rise of the AKP and the Erdoğan Era (2000s – Present)

The AKP’s Rise to Power (2002 – 2010s)

• 2002: The Justice and Development Party (AKP), led by Recep Tayyip Erdoğan, won a landslide victory in the general elections. The AKP, which had Islamist roots but portrayed itself as a moderate, pro-Western party, gained widespread support for its economic reforms and commitment to EU accession.
• 2005: Turkey began formal European Union accession negotiations, though progress was slow due to concerns over Turkey’s human rights record, freedom of the press, and treatment of minorities.
• 2010s: Erdoğan’s government presided over a period of economic growth and modernization, but it also became increasingly authoritarian. Critics accused the AKP of undermining the independence of the judiciary, cracking down on free speech, and eroding Turkey’s secular traditions.

Increasing Authoritarianism and Political Tensions (2013 – Present)

• 2013: The Gezi Park protests erupted in Istanbul, initially over plans to develop a park but quickly turning into a broader movement against Erdoğan’s increasingly authoritarian rule. The protests were met with a violent police crackdown, further polarizing Turkish society.
• 2016: A failed coup attempt by a faction within the military took place, leading to a government crackdown on alleged coup plotters. Erdoğan blamed the coup on the followers of Fethullah Gülen, a cleric living in exile in the United States. In the aftermath, tens of thousands of people, including military personnel, judges, and journalists, were arrested or dismissed.
• 2017: A referendum approved by a narrow margin granted Erdoğan sweeping new powers, transforming Turkey from a parliamentary system to a presidential system. This consolidation of power has led to further concerns about the erosion of democratic institutions.
• 2023: Erdoğan was re-elected as president, marking two decades of his political dominance. His administration continues to face significant challenges, including economic instability, high inflation, and strained relations with Western allies.